Punctuation marks Interpunkční znaménka

apostrophe colon full stop comma slash hyphen question mark exclamation mark dash quotation marks brackets semicolon

Základní pravidla používání interpunkce v AJ FULL STOP. A full stop is used at the end of a sentence that is not a question or an exclamation, and is sometimes used in abbreviations. Each new sentence must begin with a capital letter.

COMMA, A comma is used: - to separate parts of a sentence, e.g. After we left, someone fried to phone us. - between adjectives, e.g. A big, expensive car. - to separate words in a list, though it is often omitted before and, e.g. I went to France, Germany, Italy and Spain. - when words or phrases interrupt the normal progression of a sentence, e.g. I decided, however, that I needed something to eat first.

COLON : A colon is often used to introduce further details such as an explanation or a list, e.g. The shop is fuil of antiques: dining tables, chairs, wardrobes, mirrors, and so on.

SEMICOLON ; A semicolon is sometimes used instead of a full stop when two sentences are very closely connected, or to separate two main clauses, especially ones that aren't joined by a conjunction such as and or but, e.g. I went round this morning; nobody was there.

SLASH / A slash separates words or phrases that are alternatives, e.g. single / married.

Užitečná slovíčka abbreviation - a short form of a word (e.g. a.m. is an abbreviation meaning 'in the morning'). capital letter - ABC are capital letters (abc are small letters). omit sth - If you omit sth. you don't include it. (=leave sth out) interrupt sth - occur in the middle of sth and stop it continuing instead of sb/sth = in the place of sb/sth. connect sth - put two or more things together. (=join sth) such as - You use such as to introduce an example. (=like) alternative - one of two or more things that you can choose between.

Conjunctions - spojky Použití spojek v akademickém textu pomáhá dodat logickou strukturu argumentu. Jejich správné používání je proto velmi důležité. Některé spojky či jiné slovní druhy, které se v angličtině používají ke spojení částí vět, mohou být v odborných textech zásadní pro význam.

1. Spojky souřadící: and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet and - a, i, a také... but - ale, vyjma... The inhabitants of the island mostly gather berries, but they are also hunters. Obyvatelé ostrova převážně sbírají bobule, ale jsou také lovci. Čárka před but se používá, když věta vyjadřuje kontrast. All planets but Earth lack atmosphere. Všem planetám vyjma Zemi chybí atmosféra. or - nebo, jinak... Slouží k uvedení alternativ stejné důležitosti. The results can be interpreted or merely described. Výsledky lze interpretovat nebo pouze popsat.

1. Spojky souřadící: nor - ani... Pozor! Nor obsahuje zápor! Proto použití nor znamená negaci - po nor se mění pořadí podmětu a přísudku jako v otázce. I couldn't turn right, nor could I turn left. Nemohl jsem zatočit doprava, ale ani doleva. for - neboť, protože... Prices have risen for the market has experienced a drop. Ceny stouply, neboť trh prodělal pokles. so - (a) rovnež, stejně tak; (b) takže, tedy (a) The professor can read Latin, so can all her students. Profesorka umí číst latinu, stejně jako všichni její studenti. (b) The professor can read Latin, so it is no surprise that all her students can do so, too. Profesorka umí číst latinu, takze není překvapivé, že to umí také všichni její studenti. yet - přesto, ale... Persians had a bigger army, yet they were defeated. Peršané měli větší armádu, přesto byli poraženi (=ale byli poraženi).

Párové spojky

2. Spojky podřadící: Uvozují v souvětí vedlejší větu podřadnou. Uvozovací funkci spojek mohou plnit i jiné slovní druhy. Podřadících spojek je veliké množství, uvádíme jen některé.

Časové (příslovečné určení času): after - poté, co before - přetím, než when - když; až while - zatímco until - dokud etc... Příčina - následek (účelové a příčinné vedlejší věty): because - protože since - neboť (i na začátku věty) as - jakmile in order that - tak, aby etc...

přípustkové věty (opposition): although - ačkoli though - i když even though - přestože whereas - zatímco while - přičemž etc... podmínkové věty: if - jestliže unless - pokud ne only if - jen v případě, že whether or not - ať...či even if - i když in case that - v případě, že etc...

Linking words - spojovací výrazy V akademickém textu se často používají spojovací výrazy, které dodávají textu logickou strukturu. Správné používání spojovacích výrazů je důležité pro jednoznačné a srozumitelné uspořádání myšlenek v textu.

Giving examples - uvádění příkladů Tyto výrazy se dají přeložit jako "například", "konkrétně" atp. For example For instance Namely e.g. = for example (=např.) Adding information - přidávání informací Tyto výrazy se dají přeložit jako "a dále", "stejně jako", "nadto", "kromě toho také" atp. In addition As well as Furthermore Moreover Apart from Besides

Summarising - shrnutí Tyto výrazy se dají přeložit jako "zkrátka", "shrnuto", "závěrem", atp. In short To summarize To conclude i.e. (=that is): to jest Sequencing ideas - řazení myšlenek The former... the latter: první zmíněný... druhý zmíněný. Uvádí se v textu jako odkaz na dvě odlišné informace. Např: The USA and the Great Britain are prosperous economies. The former is the greatest economy in the world, the former is a leading force of the European Union. (USA a Velká Británie jsou vzvkvétajícími ekonomikami. První jsou největší ekonomikou na světě a druhá je vedoucí silou Evropské unie.) Firstly, secondly..., and finally: Zaprvé, zadruhé..., a konečně On the one hand... On the other hand: Na jednu stranu, na druhou stranu The following: následující

Giving a reason - sdělování důvodů Due to the fact that...: Vzhledem k faktu, že..., Vzhledem k tomu, že... Giving a result - sdělování výsledků Tyto výrazy se dají přeložit jako "a proto", "důsledkem je", "z toho plyne", atp. Therefore Consequently As a result Contrasting ideas - srovnání opačných myšlenek Tyto výrazy se dají přeložit jako "nicméně", "navzdory", "ačkoli", "bez ohledu na", "zatímco", atp. However In spite (of the fact that) Nevertheless Nonetheless Whereas

Čárky v angličtině V syntaxi anglického jazyka se interpunkční znaménka řídí jinými pravidly než v češtině. Přesto platí jistá pravidla, kterých je vhodné se držet. Nicméně ne všechna pravidla angličtina dodržuje důsledně. Nebuďte tedy překvapeni, pokud narazíte na odlišné použití.

Čtyři základní pravidla: 1. použití před spojkami v souvětí skládající se ze dvou hlavních vět: The optimist thinks that this is the best of all possible worlds, and the pessimist knows it. (Robert Oppenheimer) You may be disappointed if you fail, but you are doomed if you don't try. (Beverly Sills) pozor: nepoužívejte čárku mezi dvěma slovy nebo výrazy: Jack and Diane sang and danced all night.

2. mezi jednotlivými položkami výčtu (je možné použít čárku i před spojkou and): You get injected, inspected, detected, infected, neglected, and selected. (Arlo Guthrie)

3. oddělení úvodu věty, který předchází podmětu: When you get to the end of your rope, tie a knot and hang on. (Franklin Roosevelt) If at first you don't succeed, failure may be your style. (Quentin Crisp) Pozor: je-li úvodní část věty krátká (jedno či dvě slova), není ji třeba oddělovat čárkou: Last night I went to a party. At first I was a bit scared but then it was alright.

4. Dvojicí čárek lze oddělit vložené věty či slova: The story is, however, too long. He has never, as far as I know, been to America.

Transactional Letter “Transactional” means that the letter has a particular purpose, and will require further action by its reader, usually in the form of a written response. The letter could be formal or informal. Informal transactional letter If you need something from a friend, or if you're replying to a friend's request, you can write him/her a transactional letter in an informal style. Your letter will include your friend's name and you can use colloquial expressions. Remember: the main purpose of the letter is to cause an action or to answer to such a request. Your letter should be to the point, clear, and concise.

Two basic types of informal transactional letters: a) requesting somebody to do something If you have any questions or requests, you can write him/her a letter that includes questions, instructions, etc. You should be clear about what you want to know and what you want to agree upon. Examples of this type of transactional letters include: invitations, questions, etc. b) answering to an input: An imput you may wish to respond to may be one of the following: an invitation, a request, a question, etc. The letter must be based on the information given in the question. The answer must be clear and accurate, so that the communication is quick and easy. Examples of a transactional letters include: writing to a friend to request details about a computer game, replying to a friend about arrangements for a party…

Typical features: Addressing: Dear [your friend's name] Introduction: - short and relevant. Stating the purpose of your letter: I'm writing to you to ask you... I would like to invite you... I would like to meet you in order to... etc. Giving information: - ask your question plainly - explain your position clearly etc. Give futher details: Say what you want to be done: Please, answer as soon as possible... Do you agree? I'm looking forward to meeting you there. etc.

Writing: Transactional letter (informal) Plan of the letter: 1.Your address at the top right hand corner (in exam papers should be omitted) 2.The date placed below the address in format day/month (Br) 3.Greetings: Dear Name,(don’t forget comma after name) 4.A few words of thanks for the received letter: –Thanks for your letter - it was great to hear from you. –Thanks for your letter about … –Thanks for your letter, it was so nice to receive the last news from you. –Thank you for your letter. I was very glad to hear from you. –Many thanks for your last letter. Say sorry in case you haven’t written for a long time –I’m sorry I haven’t written for ages/sooner/for so long, because I was …. 5.Describe why are you writing: In your letter you asked me… Well… 6.Give answers you were asked in the previous letter (or according to your task). Be sure you have mentioned all required items. 7.Ending: –I’m looking forward to hearing from you soon 8.Farewell: Take care, Cheers, Yours, Love, With best wishes then a comma and your name

Příklad dopisu Example 1 The letter should be to your friend Sam. In his last letter to you, he asked you some advice about English language courses. Required items: a) which school? b) number of hours a week? c) how many weeks of being there will be enough d) accommodation? e) excursions?

221b Baker Street London Great Britain(UK) 8th May 2006 Dear Sam, Thanks for your letter. It was great to hear from you. In your letter you asked me about what choice in language courses would be better for you. I’ll give you some tips about it with pleasure. Firstly, if you prefer active and bright nightlife, of course you should choose the school which located in London. About your lessons schedule I definitely suggest you don’t study at a very intensive pace but for too short a period of time. Usually it brings only tiredness and low results. So, don’t overload yourself and take lessons for 15 hours a week and during at least 4 weeks. Two weeks would be far too short to get involved in active speaking. About accommodation, living with a local family is better because you’ll have a great chance to improve your everyday spoken language level. And the last piece of advice about excursions. If I were you, instead of paying high prices for that, I’d buy a nice map of the city, take my photo camera and go round all the places of interest walking or riding a bicycle which you can rent there. I’m looking forward to hearing from you soon. Best wishes, Andrew

Psaní žádosti Vyberte si jedno z následujících témat a napište žádost: 1)You want your friend to help you with your homework. 2)You want your parents to send you winter clothes. 3)You want your brother to fix your computer.

Psaní dotazu You are flying to the USA for a month. You are going to travel there alone. You have a friend, who was there last year. In your letter, you should ask your friend about the following: a) cost (budget?) b) travel (bus, train, air?) c) recommendations (national parks, cities, holiday resorts?) d) weather (hot, tornadoes, warm ocean?) e) dangers (gangs, terrorists, muggers?)

Psaní odpovědi Vyberte si jeden z následujících dopisů a odpovězte na ně: Write responses to the following letters from your friends: (Hint: Do not forget to answer all your friends ask) 1) Dear friend! I've moved to a new flat in the city centre. It is rather small, but nice. However, it is absolutely unfurnished and I need to go to Ikea to buy a bed, a table and some chairs. I'd like to ask you, if I could borrow your car for the weekend. Is it possible? If so, please, let me know when I can come for the car and when I should bring it back. Thank you very much! George

2) Dear Jane. How are you? We haven't seen each other for a long time. I'm coming to a fair to Brno next week and we must meet, finally! I'm coming on Thursday afternoon and I'm leaving on Sunday afternoon. Could we go to lunch on Friday or Saturday or a dinner on Friday? Will you have free time? Where should we meet? Do you have a favourite cafe or restaurant in Brno? There will be some colleagues from my work coming with me. They would like to go to a ballet. What is the best opera house in Brno and how can they get there? They would be very glad for your recommendations. I'm looking forward to seeing you soon! Hilda

3) Dear George, I've become my studies at Masaryk University this semester. The town is very pretty and my new colleagues and professors are lovely. I like it very much. But I don't understend the credit system. Could you please tell me, how many credits I need? What would you recommend - should I take many courses or only a few? What if I don't finish some course - will I be expelled from the university? I'm staying at Vinarska. I think you know it, it is a big dormitory, but it is quite far from my faculty. Do you know about a place in the center where I could move? How expensive are flats in Brno? Thank you for your priceless information. I'll see you at school, Martha